제2부 국제정치이론

[류재수]

제2부 국제정치이론

제1장 총론

국제정치에 대한 주요한 이론적 관점은 현실주의, 자유주의, Marxism, 사회구성주의, 탈구조주의, 탈식민주의 등 6개가 있다.

idealism(이상주의) : normative position(규범주의적 입장) with the task of academic study being one of making the world a better place(학문연구의 과업은 세상을 보다 더 좋은 곳으로 만드는 것)

People have tried to make sense of world politics for centuries, and especially so since the separate academic discipline of International Politics was formed in 1919 when the Department of International Politics was set up at the University of Wales, Aberystwyth. David Davies (Welsh industrialist)

By studying international politics scientifically, it was believed, scholars could find the causes of the world's main political problems and put forward solutions to help politicians solve them.

20년간 세계를 변화시키겠다는 헌신으로 특징지워지는 학과

realism(현실주의)

stressed seeing the world as it 'really is' rather than how we would like it to be

(우리가 세상이 어떻게 되고자 하는 것보다 세상을 현실 그대로 보는 것을 강조했다)

현실주의가 우세

현실주의자에게 세계 무대의 주요 행위자는 국가이다. 국가는 합법적으로 주권을 가진 행위자이다. 주권이란 특정 방식으로 행동하도록 강요할 수 있는 국가를 초월하는 행위자가 부재함을 의미한다. 다국적기업이나 국제기구 같은 다른 행위자는 모두 국가 간 관계의 틀 속에서 협력해야 한다.

neo-realism(신현실주의)

This view stresses the importance of the structure of the international political system in affecting the behavior of all states(이 견해는 모든 국가의 행동에 영향을 미침에 있어 국제정치제도의 구조의 중요성을 강조한다).

liberalism(자유주의)

idealism(이상주의) : this was really one rather extreme version of liberalism(이것은 사실상 자유주의 하나의 다소 극단적 유형이다)

There are many variants of liberalism, but the main themes that run through liberal thought are that human beings are perfectible, that democracy is necessary for that perfectibility to develop, and that ideas matter(많은 자유주의 변형이 있지만 자유주의 사상을 관류하는 주요 주제는 인간은 완전할 수 있고 민주주의는 그 완전성을 발현하는데 필요하며 사상이 중요하다는 것이다).

Marxism(마르크스주의)=historical materialism(역사적 유물론)

In this world economy, the most important actors are not states but classes, and the behavior of all other actors is ultimately explicable by class forces(이 세계경제에서 가장 중요한 행위자는 국가가 아니라 계급이며, 모든 다른 행위자의 행동은 궁극적으로 계급의 힘에 따라 설명될 수 있다).

The key feature of international economy is the division of the world into core, semi-periphery, and periphery areas, Within the semi-periphery and the periphery there exist cores that are tied into the capitalist world economy, while within even the core area there are peripheral economic area(국제경제의 주요한 특징은 세계가 중심부, 반주변부와 주변부로의 분할이다. 반주변부와 주변부 안에는 자본주의 세계경제와 연결된 중심 지역이 존재하는 반면 중심부 안에는 주변부경제영역이 있다)

social constructivism(사회구성주의) : 알렉산더 웬트Alexander Wendt. developed in the late 1980s and increasingly influential since the mid-1990s(1980년대 말에 전개되어 1990년 중반 이후 점차로 영향력)

Human agency had a much greater potential role in the world than implied by realism and liberalism(인간의 손를 쓰는 것(매개 중개 주선 작용 힘)이 현실주의와 자유주의가 의미하는 것보다 더 큰 잠재적 역할이 있었다) : notably the disintegration of the Soviet Empire(특히 소련의 해체)

Constructivism argues that we make and re-make the social world and there is much more of a role for human agency than other theories allow(구조주의는 우리는 사회를 건설 및 재건설하고 다른 이론이 생각[인정]하는 것보다 인간의 손를 쓰는 것에게 더 많은 역할이 있다고 주장한다.)

poststructualism(탈구조주의)

Jean-François Lyontard(장 프랑수아 리오타르)

Symplifyng to the extreme, I define post-modern as incredulity towards metanarratives(극단적으로 단순화하면, 나는 포스트모던을 거대담론에 대한 불신이라고 정의한다)

Postconstructualism is essentially concerned with distrusting and exposing any account of human life that claims to have direct access to the truth(탈구조주의는 진리에 대해 직접 도달한다고 주장하는 인간생활의 모든 이야기를 불신하고 폭로하는데 근본적으로 관심이 있다). 현실주의, 자유주의, 마르크스주의는 그들이 세계에 대한 근본적 진리를 발견했다고 주장하기 때문에 탈구조주의적 관점으로부터 모두 의심을 받는다).

postcolonialism(탈식민주의)

All the major theories we have discussed so far -realism. liberalism, Marxism, social constructivism, and poststructualism - all emerged in Europe in response to specific European problems(우리기 지금까지 논의한 이상주의, 자유주의, 마르크스주의, 사회구성주의와 탈구조주의 모든 중요한 이론들이 구체적인 유럽 문제에 반응하여 등장했다).

Postcolonial scholars argue that the dominant theories such as realism and liberalism are not neutral in terms of race, gender, and class, but have helped secure the domination of the Western world over the global South(탈식민주의학자들은 현실주의와 자유주의의은 지배적인 이론들은 인종, 성과 계급에서 중립적이지 못하나 지구 남반부에 대한 서구의 지배를 확보하는데 이바지 하였다고 주장한다).

Ⅰ. 국제체제의 존재론 논쟁 ; 이상주의와 현실주의

구분	이상주의	현실주의
남상	Woodrow Wilson	Thucydides, Machiavelli
인간관	성선설	성악설
국제체제	Locke의 자연상태	Hobbes의 자연상태
전쟁원인	무지, 경찰력 부재, 독재	세력 불균형
평화방안	계몽, 집단안보, 민주화	세력균형
평화 속성	적극적 평화(인간안전)	소극적 평화(국가안보)
영구평화	가능	불가능

Ⅱ. 방법론 논쟁 : 고전주의와 행태주의

구분	고전주의	행태주의
분석수준	인간	국가
방법론	존재론	인식론>존재론

Ⅲ. 존재론 논쟁 재현 : 현실주의와 상호의존론

구분	현실주의	상호의존론
행위자	국가	국가, 비국가적 행위자
국제체제	무정부	복합적 상호의존
권력의 대체성	긍정(대체적)	부정(특정적)
쟁점 순위	인정(생존우위)	부정
상호의존과 평화	비관적(부정적 외부효과)	낙관적(긍정적 외부효과)

Ⅳ. paradigm 논쟁

구분	현실주의	자유주의	Marxism	구성주의
국제체제	Westphalia system	거미줄망	세계체제	구성된 체계
주요행위자	국가	국가+비국가행위자	계급	국가
역동성 원천	힘	복합적 사회관계	경제	관념
종속변수	국가의 역할	세계의 모든 주요사건	빈부격차	국제체제
연구범위	국제정치	국제관계	세계체제	국제관계
주요개념	억지, 동맹	상호의존	착취, 종속	간주관성, 관념, 집합정체성

제2장 현실주의

제1절 realism

Realism is the predominant school of thought in international relations theory, theoretically formalizing the realpolitik statesmanship of early modern Europe.

제2절 A taxonomy of realism

Type of realism	Key thinkers	Key texts	Big idea
Classical realism(human nature)	Thucydises	The Pelopennesian War	International politics is drven by an endless struggle for power, which has its roots in human nature. Justice , law and society have either no place or are circumscribed.
	Machiavelli	The Prince	Political realism recognizes that principles are surbodinated to policies; the ultimate skill of the stae leader is to accept, and adapt to, the changing power political configurations in world politics.
	Morgenthau	Politics among Nations	Politics is governed by laws that are created by human nature. The mechanism we use to understand international politics is the concept of interests, defined in terms of power.
Structural realism(international system)	Rousseau	The State of War	It is not human nature but the anarchial system that fosters fear, jealousy, suspicion, and insecurity.
	Waltz	Theory of International Politics	Anarchy leads to logic or self-help in which states seek to maximize their security.The most stable distribution of power in the system is bipolarity.
	Mearsheimer	Tragedy of Great Power Politics	The anarchial, self-help system compels states to maximize their relative power position.
Neoclassical realism	Zakaria	From Wealth to Power	The systemic account of world politics provided by structural realism is in complete. It needs to be supplemented with bwtter accounts of unit-level variables such as power is perceived, and how leadership is exercised.

Ⅰ. 고전적 현실주의(classical realism)

1. 가정

가. 국가는 주요한 행위자, 통합된 행위자 및 합리적 행위자이다. For realists. the main actors on the world stage are states, which are legally sovereign states. Sovereinty means that there is no actor above the state that can control compel to act in specific ways.

나. 국가들 사이에 이익의 조화란 없으며 국제관계는 본질적으로 갈등관계이다. World politics represents a struggle for power between states each trying to maximize their national interest.

다. 지리(geography)나 인간성(human nature)과 같은 거의 변하지 않는 요인이 국가행위를 결정한다. As for what propels states to act as they do, realists see human nature as centrally important.

라. 인간은 본질적으로 선하지 않고 이기적이며 사악하고 권력지향적이다. For realists, human nature is fixed, and, crucially, it is selfish.

마. 국제정치에서의 도덕과 개인적 도덕 또는 보편적 도덕은 다르다. Realists are sceptical of the idea that universal moral principles exist and therefore, warn state leaders against sacrificing their own self-interest in order to adhere to some indeterminate notion of 'ethical' conduct.

Jonathan Haslam from the University of Cambridge characterizes Realism as "a spectrum of ideas." Regardless of which definition is used, the theories of realism revolve around four central propositions:

That states are the central actors in international politics rather than individuals or international organizations,

That the international political system is anarchic as there is no supranational authority that can enforce rules over the states,

That the actors in the international political system are rational as their actions maximize their own self-interest, and

That all states desire power so that they can ensure their own self-preservation.

2. Frederick L. Schuman

미국의 정치학자, 국제관계학자 Frederick Lewis Schuman (1904~1981)은 International Politics(1933)에서 공통정부가 없는 국제체제를 약육강식의 원리가 지배하는 세계로 규정하고 국가는 자력구제를 목표로 행동하여야 한다고 강조하였다. 국제정치란 본질적으로 권력투쟁이며 민족주의와 제국주의로 구체화되어 발현한다.

Self-help is the principle of action in an anarchial system where there is no global government.

3. Friedrich Meinecke

국가이성(riason d'éat. reason of state)이 국가의 운동의 제1법칙이다. According to Friedrich Meinecke, riason d'éat (reason of state) is the fundamental principle of international conduct, the state's

First Law of Motion.

4. E. H. Carr

이상주의를 비판하고 현실주의의 장점을 열거하면서도 현실주의 한계를 제시하여 이상부의와 현실주의의 종합을 강조하고 도덕성을 중시하였다.

In The Twenty Year's Crisis(1939), Carr described the opposition of realism and utopianism in international relations as a dialectic progress. Carr described realism as the acceptance that what exists is right and the belief that there is no reality or forces outside history such as God. Carr argued that in realism there is no moral dimension and that what is successful is right and that what is unsuccessful is wrong.Carr argued that for realists there are no basis for moralizing about the past, present or the future and that "World history is the World Court". Carr rejected both utopianism and realism as the basis of a new international order and instead called a synthesis of the two. Carr wrote that:

"Having demolished the current utopia with weapons of realism we still need to build a new utopia of our own, which will fall to the same weapons".

Though Carr was highly sympathetic towards the realist case in international relations and rejected utopianism as the basis of the international order, Carr described realism as lacking :"a finite goal, an emotional appeal, a right of moral judgment, and a ground for action".

Carr contributed to the foundation of what is now known as classical realism in International relations theory. Through study of history (work of Thucydides and Machiavelli) and reflection and deep epistemological disagreement with Idealism, the dominant International relations theory between the World Wars, he came up with realism. In his book The Twenty Years' Crisis, Carr defined three dichotomies of realism and utopianism (Idealism), derived from Machiavellian realism:

In the first place, history is a sequence of cause and effect, whose course can be analysed and understood by intellectual effort, but not (as the utopians believe) directed by " imagination ". Secondly; theory does not (as the utopians assume) create practice, but practice theory. In Machiavelli's words, " good counsels, whence so ever they come, are born of the wisdom of the prince, and not the wisdom of the prince from good counsels ". Thirdly, politics are not (as the utopians pretend) a function of ethics, but ethics of politics. Men " are kept honest by constraint ". Machiavelli recognised the importance of morality, but thought that there could be no effective morality where there was no effective authority. Morality is the product of power.[Carr, 1939]

5. Hans Morgenthau

Hans Morgenthau는 아상주의와 E. H. Carr의 도덕적 현실주의를 비판하고 전통적 현실주의를 체계화하였다. 이상주의의 법적 제도적 저근의 위험성을 강조하고 집단안전보장 및 사법적 해결과 같은 국제제도의 실효성과 평화적 변화의 가능성에 회의적이었다.

Realism and Politics Among Nations (1948)에서 6가지 원칙을 제시하였다.

Recent scholarly assessments of Morgenthau show that his intellectual trajectory was more complicated than originally thought. His realism was infused with moral considerations, and during the last part of his life he favored supranational control of nuclear weapons and strongly opposed the U.S. role in the Vietnam War. His book Scientific Man versus Power Politics (1946) argued against an overreliance on science and technology as solutions to political and social problems.

Starting with the second edition of Politics Among Nations, Morgenthau included a section in the opening chapter called "Six Principles of Political Realism".

The principles, paraphrased, are:

1. Political realism believes that politics, like society in general, is governed by objective laws that have their roots in human nature.

2. The main signpost of political realism is the concept of interest defined in terms of power, which infuses rational order into the subject matter of politics, and thus makes the theoretical understanding of politics possible. Political realism avoids concerns with the motives and ideology of statesmen. Political realism avoids reinterpreting reality to fit the policy. A good foreign policy minimizes risks and maximizes benefits.

3. Realism recognizes that the determining kind of interest varies depending on the political and cultural context in which foreign policy, not to be confused with a theory of international politics, is made. It does not give "interest defined as power" a meaning that is fixed once and for all.

4. Political realism is aware of the moral significance of political action. It is also aware of the tension between the moral command and the requirements of successful political action. Realism maintains that universal moral principles must be filtered through the concrete circumstances of time and place, because they cannot be applied to the actions of states in their abstract universal formulation.

5. Political realism refuses to identify the moral aspirations of a particular nation with the moral laws that govern the universe.

6. The political realist maintains the autonomy of the political sphere; the statesman asks "How does this policy affect the power and interests of the nation?" Political realism is based on a pluralistic conception of human nature. The political realist must show where the nation's interests differ from the moralistic and legalistic viewpoints.

6. Reinhold Niebuhr

국제정치의 본질은 인간의 원죄에서 기인하는 권력투쟁이다. 인간은 본질적으로 생존의지 및 생존을 위한 권력의지을 가지고 있는 존재이며 국가 역시 권력의지를 가짐으로서 현실정치의 양상을 보여준다. Morgenthau와는 달리 국제정치에서 도덕이 필요하고 도덕을 추구해야 한다. 권력은 자신의 이익을 위한 수단보다는 정의의 도구호서 광범한 이익을 위해 사용해야 한다.

EArthur M. Schlesinger Jr. explained Niebuhr's influence:

Traditionally, the idea of the frailty of man led to the demand for obedience to ordained authority. But Niebuhr rejected that ancient conservative argument. Ordained authority, he showed, is all the more subject to the temptations of self-interest, self-deception and self-righteousness. Power must be balanced by power. He persuaded me and many of my contemporaries that original sin provides a far stronger foundation for freedom and self-government than illusions about human perfectibility. Niebuhr's analysis was grounded in the Christianity of Augustine and Calvin, but he had, nonetheless, a special affinity with secular circles. His warnings against utopianism, messianism and perfectionism strike a chord today.... We cannot play the role of God to history, and we must strive as best we can to attain decency, clarity and proximate justice in an ambiguous world.