Can/Could
허가(permission): can이 일반적이며, could는 condition의 의미
You can phone from my house.
You could phone from my house (if you want to).
과거: could, was/were allowed to
Tom said I could park outside his house.
On weekdays we had to get up early but on Sundays we could/were allowed to stay in bed till ten.
be allowed to는 general permission이 아니라 specific permission을 나타냄.
I had the right visa so I was allowed to cross the frontier.
허락 요청(request for permission)
Can/Could I I park here? (현재, 미래에 대해 씀)
가능(possibility)
'it is possible'의 의미
You can ski on the hills (there is enough snow).
Can you get to the top of the ountain in a day? (Is it possible?)
When the new tunnel is ready we'll be able to get to the town much more easily.
가능성(occasional possibility): 현재, 과거의 긍정문에만 쓰임
He could be very unreasonable.
능력(ability):
can과 be able to가 자유롭게 쓰인다.
미래: shall/will be able만이 쓰인다.
Our baby will be able to to walk in a few weeks.
현재: 둘다 가능하지만 can이 더 일반적이다.
Can you/Are you able to type?
I can't pay you today.
Can you wait till tomorrow?
현재완료: be able to
Since his accident he hasn't been able to leave the house.
could: 요청, 조건(request, conditional)
조건절에서 현재의 의미로 사용된다.
Could you run the business by yourself (if necessary)?
정중한 요구(polite request): would you의 대용으로 씀
Could you please send me an application form?
Couldn't you come a little earlier?
could/was able to: past ability
for ability only: 둘다 가능
When I was young I could climb any tree in the forest.
ability + particular action: was able to(부정, 감각동사 예외)
Although the pilot was badly hurt he was able to explain what had happened.
I could/was able to see him through the window.
had been able to
He said he had lost his passport and hadn't been able to leave the country.
could + perfect infinitive: 과거의 능력(past ability)
행위가 이루어지지 않은 경우(the action was not performed)
I could have lent you the money. Why didn't you ask me?
수행 여부를 알 수 없을 때(not known its performance)
The money has disappeared. Who could have taken it?
cf. He was able to send a message.(he sent it)
He could have sent a message.(NOT or NOT KNOWN)
허락(permission)
You could have gone yesterday.(You were free to go.)
could: possibility(may/might의 대용)
He may/might/could be in the library.
cf. 부정문에서 의미차이 발생
He may/might not be driving the car himself.
=Perhaps he isn't driving the car himself.
He couldn't be driving the car himself.
=This is impossible. He can't drive.
He may/might/could have heard it from Jack.
cf. Ann might not have seen Tom yesterday.(Perhaps not)
Ann couldn't have seen Tom yesterday. (impossible)
can't/couldn't: 부정추측(negative deduction)
현재사건에 대해: can't/couldn't + be
A: Can I have some sweets? I am hungry.
B: You can't/couldn't be hungry. You've ust had dinner.
과거사건에 대해: can't/couldn't + have + p.p
A: A man answered the phone. I suppose it was her husban.
B: It couldn't have been her husband. He's been dead for ages.
He can't/couldn't have done it by himself.
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May/Might
may/might: 가능성(possibility)
may/might + 동사의 원형: 현재, 미래의 가능성
Ann may/might know Tom's address.(Perhaps Ann knows ...)
He may/might be waiting at the station when we arrive.(Perhaps he will ...)
might: slightly increasing the doubt
Tome might lend you the money. (I think it is unlikely)
I knew we might have to wait at the frontier.
negative, interrogative(문두에는 may 사용 불가)
He may/might not believe your story.
Do you think the plane will be late?
Is the plane likely to be late?
What may be the result of the new tax?
Might they be waiting outside the station?
may/might + have + p.p.: 과거에 대한 추측
He may/might have gone.(It is possible that he went/has gone.)
uncertainty가 사라지면 might를 사용
He came home alone. You shouldn't have let him do that; he might have got lost.(But he didn't get lost.)
test해보지 않은 경우에는 might를 씀
Perhaps we should have taken the other road. It might have been quicker.
cf. If we had taken the other road we might have arrived earlier.
가정법에서: possible result(will/would는 certain result)
If he sees you he will stop.(certain)
If he sees you he may stop.(possible)
If you poured hot water into it it might crack.
may/allow: permission
긍정문과 부정문
I may leave the office as soon as I have finished my work.
I can leave/I am allowed to leave ...
You may park here.(authority가 있는 화자가 허락하는 경우)
cf. You can park/are allowed to park (by another authority).
formal permission: Each voter may vote for only one candidate.
과거: allow
I allowed him to park here last week.
pasive
Since his accident he hasn't been allowed to drive a car.
의문문
요청(request for permission)
Can/Could/May I use your phone? (less formal situation)
could I 보다 may I가 좀더 formal
might I는 대답에 대한 uncertainty 포함.
questions about permission: can, allow
Can he take the car out whenever he likes?
Were the students allowed to choose?
Special Construction
I may/might as well + 동사의 원형: intention을 표현
I may/might as well start at once.
you/he may/might as well: 제안
You may/might as well come with me.
might just as well: it would be equally good to
I'll go on Monday by train. You might just as well wait till Tuesday and go by plane.
you might: causal command(=will you), 해줄 것을 확신
You might post these for me.=Post these for me, will you?
might: 설득(persuasive requests), 이미 해야될 일을 명령(irritation)
You might tell me what he said.(You should have told me.)
You might have warned us that the bull was dangerous.
may + 동사의 원형: 신념/희망(faith and hope)
May heaven reward you!
=I hope heaven will reward you.
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Must/Have to/Need/Ought to/Should
의무
must, must not, need not: 화자의 권위를 나타냄(speaker's authority)
You must do your homework before you watch TV.
You must not turn on the TV till you have done your homework.
You needn't do your homework tonight. You can leave it till tomorrow.
have to/will have to/had to: 상황적 의무(external obligation)
won't/don't/didn't need to: external obligation
Tom is starting work next week. He'll have to get up early. He'll hate that.
must, need not도 external obligation에 쓰일 수 있으며, need not의 경우 1인칭에 쓰인다.
We needn't hurry. We've got lots of time.
must not vs need not
must not: negative obligation
You must not tell anyone.=Don't tell anyone.
Visitors must not feed the giraffes.
You mustn't wear pink; it doesn't suit you.(advice)
need not: absence of obligation(permission, unnecessary)
You needn't make two copies. One will do.
You needn't lock your car. This is a very honest area.
You must not drive fast. There is a speed limit here.
You need not drive fast; we have plenty of time.
must vs. have to: 긍정문에서
must: 과거형이 없으며, had to를 과거에 대해 사용
have to: 습관적/단일 행위(habitual/single actions)
have got to: 단일 행위(single actions)
must: 화자의 강요(an obligation imposed by the speaker)
have to: 외적 요구(an external obligation)
You must clean your own books.(These are my orders.)
You will have to clean your boots when you join the army.
That boy has to practice the piano every day.(His parents insist.)
Mr Pitt has to work very hard.(Circumstances make this necessary.)
must: speaker's approval or support to the existing external authority
Children must obey their parents.(The speaker approves.)
have to는 화자가 단순히 사실을 기술함
1인칭에서는 별로 구별이 없으나, have to는 습관을, must는 중요한 또는 위급한 의무를 나타냄.
I have to be at my office at nine every day.(habit)
I must be at the station at ten. It's most important.
We have to water this cactus once a month.(habit)
의문문에서 must vs. have to
have to를 쓰는 것이 안전하다.
미래의 external obligation: have to
Shall I have to obey the teachers when I go to school?
현재의 3인칭 external obligation: have to
Does she have to do it by hand?
다른 경우에 must/have to 가능, have to가 더 일반적
Must I clean my teeth tonight?
Have I got to clean them?
have to: 의문문에서 have I got to 또는 do I have to를 씀
습관: Do you have to wind your watch every day?
과거: Had you got to 또는 Did you have to
need not
현재, 미래
화자의 권위(speaker's authority or advice)
You needn't pay me back till next month.
You needn't bring your text books tomorrow.
외적 요구(external authority or external circumstances): have to
Peter doesn't have to pay for his lunch.
Ann hasn't got to go to the lecture.
1인칭에서 need not이 external authority로 쓰인다.
I needn't (won't/doesn't have to) type this report today.
Mr Jones waid that there was no hurry about it.
과거: speaker's authority와 external authority의 구분이 없어진다.
I didn't have to wait long.
When he was at university he didn't have to/need to pay anything for his keep, for he stayed with his uncle.
needn't + have + p.p.: unnecesary action performed
I needn't have written to him because he phoned me shortly afterwards.(but I did write)
You needn't have brought your umbrella for we are going by car.
needn't have p.p. vs. didn't have/need to
needn't have + p.p.: no obligation but action performed
You needn't have watered the flowers, for it is going to rain.
didn't have/need to: no obligation, so no action
I didn't have to cut the grass myself. My brother did it.
I didn't have to translate it for him for he understands Dutch.
needn't have/could have/should have + p.p.
needn't have + p.p.: 대개 could have + p.p.와 함께 쓰임
A: I walked up six flights of stairs.
B: You needn't have walked up; you could have taken the lift.
needn't/should have
She shouldn't have stood in a queue.(It was foolish.)
She needn't have stood in a queue.(It was not necessary)
추측을 나타내는 must
현재
I've had no sleep for 48 hours. You must be exhausted.
My brother develops his own films. He must save a lot of money.
과거
They must have broken a lot of plates.
Oh, it must have been my brother, Peter.
부정추측: can't/couldn't + be/have + p.p.
He was terribly tired after walking six kilometers. He can't be at all strong.
Tom can't have written this because it is in French and he doesn't know French.
Jones couldn't have caught the nine o'clock train for he only left his house at nine.
추측의 must vs. may/might
열쇠가 네개 있을 때 처음에는
This may/might be the key. =Perhaps this is the key.
그러나 하나만 남으면
This must be the key.
I wonder why Tom hasn't answered my letter.
He may/might be ill.(다른 가능성 허용)
또는 He must be ill. (유일한 가능성)
과거도 마찬가지
He may have come by train.
He must have come by taxi.
ought to vs. must/have to/should
ought to는 subject's obligation or duty
must: speaker's authority; have to: external authority
A: You ought to/should finish your work before going out.
B: I know I should
cf. a. You ought to obey Mr. Pitt.(Mr. Pitt insists on it.)
b. You must obey Mr. Pitt.(the speaker insists on or approves of, Mr. Pitt's authority.
C. Tom, you ought to obey Mr. Pitt. (obeying Pitt is advisable.)
must/ought to가 충고에 사용되지만, must는 더 강함.
You ought to go to Paris.
You must go to Paris.
ought to have + p.p.: unfulfilled duty, sensible action neglected
You ought to have told him that the paint on that seat is wet.
You oughtn't to have crossed the road when the lights were red.
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Shall/Should
Shall
2, 3인칭: 의지, 명령, 약속, 협박 등의 화자의 의지를 나타냄
1, 3인칭: 청자의 의지를 물음
경고: Anyone found guilty of robbery shall be shot at once.
약속: You shall have the book tomorrow.
청자의 의지: Shall I open the door?
명령: He refuses to go? I tell you he shall go.
금지: Thou shalt not steal.
1인칭 단수에서 청자의 의지를 물을 때 shall을 씀: Shall I/*Will I come at once? What shall/will we drink?
Shall we go? (청자의 의지)
Will I see it later? (단순미래)
목적, 희망을 나타냄
It has been decided that the second reading shall not be opposed.
Should
종속절에서 과거일 때 의지를 나타냄
He gave orders that the strangers should be hospitably entertained.
He promised me that the message should be sent at once.
사실에 대한 기분이나 의견을 나타냄: 놀람, 후회
I am surprised that you should have been so foolish.
It is strange that he should refuse to see her.
It seemed incredible that he should be the same man I knew twenty years ago.
사실에 대한 반대: 가능, 개연성, 기대 등을 나타냄
It was impossible that this should continue for long.
It was not to be expected that they should surrender without a struggle.
so that, lest 등에서 과거를 가리킴
I hid it lest he should see it.(in order not to, 부사절)
cf. I trembled lest they should see us.(명사절)
가능성
If you should see him, give him my regards.
Should he ask for references, tell him apply to me.
관계절에서 가정법의 의미
Anyone who should wish to come will be welcome.
shall의 의미로 시제일치: 목적, 희망, 가능성
He promised to come back as soon as the war should be over.
수사의문문(rhetorical question): 의무, 희망
Why should he obey an order given him by a perfect stranger?
I won't pay the fine. Why should yoy?
Where is Mary? How should I know?
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Used to/Be used to
A. Used to
형태
부정: used not/usedn't or didn't use to
의문: used you/used he: or did you use to
부정의문: usedn't you/he? or didn't you use to
용법
discontinued habit which contrasts with the present
He used to drink beer; now he drinks wine.
She usedn't to like Tom but she quite likes him now.
habit or repetition implied, not contrast but describe routine
On my way to school I used to pass a bookshop.
Tom and Ann were a young married couple. Every morning Tom used to kiss Ann and sett off for work.
used to vs. would
would does not emphasize the contrast between past and present.
used to does not necessarily express repetition.
would: momentary/personal interest
used to: appreciable extent in the past/objective
He would spend every penny he earned on books.
He used to say that one place was as good as another.
They used to nod to one another when they met, and now and then they would exchange a word or two.
의문문, 부정문
Used he always to go out into the garden after dinner?
He used not to answer.
Did he use to take the bus?
He didn't use to answer.
B. be used to
형태
be/become/get used to + noun/pronoun/gerund
의미
accustomed, be familiar with
I am not used to this sort of thing.
I am not used to being spoken to like that.
I am used to working in a noisy room.
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Will/Would
주어의 의지, 희망, 동의를 나타냄: 대개 부정문/의문문에서 쓰임.
Come when you will.
Will you do me a favor?
I won't have you go hungry.
Won't you come in?
would는 과거에 대해 주어의 의지, 희망, 동의를 나타냄: 주로 부정문
would not은 refuse to와 같은 뜻이다.
He would not tell us where the money was hidden.
They had to obey, whether they would or not.
will/would가 습관, 경향, 의지를 나타냄
She will sit there for hours, waiting for her to come home.
When pressed for an answer, he would say that it was none of his business.
1인칭의 경우 will을 쓰지 않음: I often sit there for hours.
Boys will be boys.
Accidents will happen.
You will have your way.
He will have his little joke.
cf. 사실을 기술하는 경우의 반복은 will/would를 쓰지 않음
He often wrote to his parents.
He would write for hours at a time.
would/would have가 법조동사로 쓰인다.
I would ask you to reconsider your decision.
I wish people would not talk so much.
She would have done anything to make amends.
